Vol. 1 (2025)
Inaugural Issue 2025

Articles

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Alkali-Slag Pervious Concrete

Published 2025-09-04

  • Xu Liang
    • ,
  • Kai Fang
    • ,
  • Jun Huang
    • ,
  • Denis Rodrigue
    • ,
  • Qingxiang Zhao
    • ,
  • Chengpeng Zou

Xu Liang
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China

Kai Fang
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China

Jun Huang
"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China" & "Key Laboratory of Engineering and Technology for Soft Soil Foundation and Tideland Reclamation of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou, China" & "Wenzhou Engineering Technical Research Center on Building Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction & Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China" & "Zhejiang Collaborative Innovation Center of Tideland Reclamation and Ecological Protection, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China"

Denis Rodrigue
Department of Chemical Engineering, Laval University, Quebec, Canada

Qingxiang Zhao
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China

Chengpeng Zou
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China

Abstract

Alkali-activated pervious concrete was prepared using ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as a cementitious material substitute and sodium silicate as an alkali activator. This study investigated the effects of water-binder ratio, sodium silicate modulus, and alkali equivalent on the mechanical properties, permeability coefficient, and chloride ion resistance of the pervious concrete. The results showed that as the water-binder ratio increased from 0.27 to 0.31, the mechanical properties improved slightly, but the permeability coefficient decreased. The optimal mechanical performance was achieved at an alkali equivalent of 6%, while the highest porosity was observed at 0.3%. A sodium silicate modulus of 1.2 provided the best balance between mechanical strength and permeability. Then, regression analysis was used to confirm a linear correlation between porosity and permeability coefficient, while the Boltzmann model was used to establish a relationship between chloride ion content and penetration depth. Finally, a comparison with previous experimental results showed that GGBS contributed to improve the mechanical properties of pervious concrete.

Keywords

Alkali activated material, Ground granulated blast furnace slag, Pervious concrete, Durability, Regression analysis

PDF

References

  1. Pierrehumbert R. There is no Plan B for dealing with the climate crisis[J]. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 2019, 75(5): 215-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/00963402.2019.1654255
  2. Wang B, Wang B, Lv B, et al. Impact of motor vehicle exhaust on the air quality of an urban city[J]. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 2022, 22(8): 220213. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.220213
  3. Yang K, Hou H, Li Y, et al. Future urban waterlogging simulation based on LULC forecast model: A case study in Haining City, China[J]. Sustainable Cities and Society, 2022, 87: 104167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104167
  4. Arbi K, Nedeljkovic M, Zuo Y, et al. A review on the durability of alkali-activated fly ash/slag systems: advances, issues, and perspectives[J]. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2016, 55(19): 5439-5453.https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.6b00559
  5. Xu D, Cui Y, Li H, et al. On the future of Chinese cement industry[J]. Cement and Concrete Research, 2015, 78: 2-13.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.06.012
  6. Zheng X, Pan J, Easa S, et al. Utilization of copper slag waste in alkali-activated metakaolin pervious concrete[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023, 76: 107246.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107246
  7. Singh A, Sampath P V, Biligiri K P. A review of sustainable pervious concrete systems: Emphasis on clogging, material characterization, and environmental aspects[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 261: 120491.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120491
  8. Kajaste R, Hurme M. Cement industry greenhouse gas emissions–management options and abatement cost[J]. Journal of cleaner production, 2016, 112: 4041-4052.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.07.055
  9. International Energy Agency (IEA), 2019. World Energy Outlook 2019 (www.eia.gov/ieo).
  10. UNEP, 2009. Buildings and climate change: Summary for decision-makers. United Nations Environ. Program. Sustain. Build. Clim. Initiat. Paris 1, 62.
  11. Subramanian N. Burj Khalifa World’s Tallest Structure[J]. New Build. Mater. Constr. World, 2010, 7: 198-210.
  12. Caron R, Patel R A, Dehn F. Experimental study on basic and drying creep for an alkali‐activated slag concrete and comparison with existing creep models[J]. Structural Concrete, 2023, 24(5): 6405-6420.https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.202300134
  13. Shi C, Jiménez A F, Palomo A. New cements for the 21st century: The pursuit of an alternative to Portland cement[J]. Cement and concrete research, 2011, 41(7): 750-763.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.03.016
  14. Payá J, Monzó J, Borrachero M V, et al. Reuse of aluminosilicate industrial waste materials in the production of alkali-activated concrete binders[M]//Handbook of alkali-activated cements, mortars and concretes. Woodhead Publishing, 2015: 487-518.https://doi.org/10.1533/9781782422884.4.487
  15. Aiken T A, Kwasny J, Sha W, et al. Mechanical and durability properties of alkali-activated fly ash concrete with increasing slag content[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 301: 124330.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124330
  16. Pacheco-Torgal F, Castro-Gomes J, Jalali S. Alkali-activated binders: A review. Part 2. About materials and binders manufacture[J]. Construction and building materials, 2008, 22(7): 1315-1322.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.03.019
  17. Khan A, Do J, Kim D. Experimental optimization of high-strength self-compacting concrete based on D-optimal design[J]. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 2017, 143(4): 04016108.https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001230
  18. Ding M, Yu R, Feng Y, et al. Possibility and advantages of producing an ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with ultra-low cement content[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 273: 122023.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122023
  19. Pacheco-Torgal F, Castro-Gomes J, Jalali S. Alkali-activated binders: A review: Part 1. Historical background, terminology, reaction mechanisms and hydration products[J]. Construction and building Materials, 2008, 22(7): 1305-1314.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.10.015
  20. Pacheco-Torgal F, Castro-Gomes J, Jalali S. Alkali-activated binders: A review. Part 2. About materials and binders manufacture[J]. Construction and building materials, 2008, 22(7): 1315-1322.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.03.019
  21. Pacheco-Torgal F, Abdollahnejad Z, Camões A F, et al. Durability of alkali-activated binders: a clear advantage over Portland cement or an unproven issue?[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2012, 30: 400-405.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.017
  22. Miller S A, John V M, Pacca S A, et al. Carbon dioxide reduction potential in the global cement industry by 2050[J]. Cement and concrete research, 2018, 114: 115-124.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.08.026
  23. Garcia-Lodeiro I, Fernández-Jimenez A, Pena P, et al. Alkaline activation of synthetic aluminosilicate glass[J]. Ceramics International, 2014, 40(4): 5547-5558.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2013.10.146
  24. Provis J L. Alkali-activated materials[J]. Cement and concrete research, 2018, 114: 40-48.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.009
  25. Schilling P J, Roy A, Eaton H C, et al. Microstructure, strength, and reaction products of ground granulated blast-furnace slag activated by highly concentrated NaOH solution[J]. Journal of materials research, 1994, 9(1): 188-197.https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.1994.0188
  26. Fang S, Lam E S S, Li B, et al. Effect of alkali contents, moduli and curing time on engineering properties of alkali activated slag[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 249: 118799.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118799
  27. Hu X, Shi C, Shi Z, et al. Compressive strength, pore structure and chloride transport properties of alkali-activated slag/fly ash mortars[J]. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2019, 104: 103392.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103392
  28. Shi P, Falliano D, Yang Z, et al. Investigation on the anti-carbonation properties of alkali-activated slag concrete: Effect of activator types and dosages[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 91: 109552.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109552
  29. Wang C, Zhao X, Zhang X, et al. Effects of alkali equivalent and polypropylene fibres on performance of alkali-activated municipal waste incineration bottom ash-slag mortar[J]. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024, 84: 108496.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108496
  30. Tsai C J. Investigate the mechanical behavior of alkali-activated slag mortar using sustainable waste sodium silicate-bonded sand as an alkali activator and carbon free aggregate[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2024, 429: 136448.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136448
  31. Khankhaje E, Salim M R, Mirza J, et al. Properties of quiet pervious concrete containing oil palm kernel shell and cockleshell[J]. Applied Acoustics, 2017, 122: 113-120.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2017.02.014
  32. Rangelov M, Nassiri S, Haselbach L, et al. Using carbon fiber composites for reinforcing pervious concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2016, 126: 875-885.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.035
  33. Chindaprasirt P, Hatanaka S, Chareerat T, et al. Cement paste characteristics and porous concrete properties[J]. Construction and Building materials, 2008, 22(5): 894-901.
  34. Najm H, Wang H, Roda A M, et al. The use of porous concrete for sidewalks[R]. 2017.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.12.007
  35. ACI (American Concrete Institute). Report on pervious concrete[C]. Farmington Hills, MI, USA: American Concrete Institute, 2010.
  36. Zhao H K, Geng Q L, Liu X S. Influence of freeze–thaw cycles on mechanical properties of pervious concrete: From experimental studies to discrete element simulations[J]. Construction and Building Materials 2023, 409.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133988
  37. Song H, Fan S J, Che J H, et al. Physical & mechanical properties of pervious concrete incorporating municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash[J]. Journal of Building Engineering 2024, 96.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.110599
  38. Sherfenaz A, Ahmad S I, Salauddin M. Sustainable use of induction furnace slag as coarse aggregate in pervious concrete: Strength and hydrological properties[J]. Case Studies in Construction Materials 2025, 22.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e04653
  39. He J, Xu S H S, Sang G C et al. Enhancing the Mechanical Properties and Water Permeability of Pervious Planting Concrete: A Study on Additives and Plant Growth[J]. Materials (Basel) 2024, 17, (10).https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102301
  40. Li J, Xia J, Di Sarno L, et al. Towards a better binder for pervious concrete: a case study on the flexural strength of fibre-reinforced high-strength cementitious paste (F-HSCP) under different curing conditions[J]. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2025: e05059.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e05059
  41. Kanakubo T. Tensile characteristics evaluation method for ductile fiber-reinforced cementitious composites[J]. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 2006, 4(1): 3-17.https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.4.3
  42. Sata V, Chindaprasirt P. Use of construction and demolition waste (CDW) for alkali-activated or geopolymer concrete[M]//Advances in construction and demolition waste recycling. Woodhead Publishing, 2020: 385-403.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819055-5.00019-X
  43. Elango K S, Gopi R, Saravanakumar R, et al. Properties of pervious concrete–A state of the art review[J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021, 45: 2422-2425.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.839
  44. Claudino G O, Rodrigues G G O, Rohden A B, et al. Mix design for pervious concrete based on the optimization of cement paste and granular skeleton to balance mechanical strength and permeability[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 347: 128620.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128620
  45. Feng H, Su Y, Guo A, et al. Mechanical properties of cellulose nanocrystal modified cement/fly ash pastes under various water/binder ratios[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2024, 447: 138213.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.138213
  46. Zhang Z, Pan T, Guo R, et al. The effect of mortar film thickness on the fluidity of concrete: Experiment and simulation[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2024, 447: 138096.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.138096
  47. Tahiri I, Dangla P, Vandamme M, et al. Numerical investigation of salt-frost damage of pervious concrete at the scale of a few aggregates[J]. Cement and Concrete Research, 2022, 162: 106971.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2022.106971
  48. Adosi B, Mirjalili S A, Adresi M, et al. Experimental evaluation of tensile performance of aluminate cement composite reinforced with weft knitted fabrics as a function of curing temperature[J]. Polymers, 2021, 13(24): 4385.https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13244385
  49. Mardani M, Lavassani S H H, Adresi M, et al. Piezoresistivity and mechanical properties of self-sensing CNT cementitious nanocomposites: Optimizing the effects of CNT dispersion and surfactants[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 349: 128127.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128127
  50. Supriya A, Murali K. The development of the compressive strength of pervious concrete using sugarcane bagasse ash and flyash[J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2023.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.04.338
  51. ACI-552R, Report on Pervious Concrete, American Concrete Institute, ACI 522R-10(2010).
  52. Gao Y, Xu J, Bai E, et al. Static and dynamic mechanical properties of high early strength alkali activated slag concrete[J]. Ceramics International, 2015, 41(10): 12901-12909.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.06.131
  53. Yan Z, Sun Z, Yang J, et al. Mechanical performance and reaction mechanism of copper slag activated with sodium silicate or sodium hydroxide[J]. Construction and building materials, 2021, 266: 120900.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120900
  54. Adediran A, Yliniemi J, Moukannaa S, et al. Enhancing the thermal stability of alkali-activated Fe-rich fayalite slag-based mortars by incorporating ladle and blast furnace slags: Physical, mechanical and structural changes[J]. Cement and Concrete Research, 2023, 166: 107098.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2023.107098
  55. Sun Z, Vollpracht A. Isothermal calorimetry and in-situ XRD study of the NaOH activated fly ash, metakaolin and slag[J]. Cement and Concrete Research, 2018, 103: 110-122.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.10.004
  56. Arioz O, Bzeni D K H, Zangy R R A, et al. Properties of slag-based geopolymer pervious concrete for ambient curing condition[C]//IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing, 2020, 737(1): 012068.https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/737/1/012068
  57. Mohamed O A, Zuaiter H A, Najm O. Shrinkage characteristics of sustainable mortar and concrete with alkali-activated slag and fly ash Binders: A focused review[J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2024.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2024.05.058
  58. Tan Y, He Y, Cui X, et al. The influence of different water glass moduli on the chemical corrosion resistance of alkali-activated porous concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2024, 415: 134971.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.134971
  59. Hasan M R, Zain M F M, Hamid R, et al. A comprehensive study on sustainable photocatalytic pervious concrete for storm water pollution mitigation: a review[J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2017, 4(9): 9773-9776.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.06.265
  60. Zhao R D, Yang S Y, Jia W T, et al. Review of recent progress in durability of fly ash based geopolymer concrete[J]. J. Southwest Jiaotong Univ, 2021, 56: 1065-1074.
  61. Masoule M S T, Bahrami N, Karimzadeh M, et al. Lightweight geopolymer concrete: A critical review on the feasibility, mixture design, durability properties, and microstructure[J]. Ceramics International, 2022, 48(8): 10347-10371.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.01.298
  62. Wang A, Zheng Y, Zhang Z, et al. The durability of alkali-activated materials in comparison with ordinary Portland cements and concretes: a review[J]. Engineering, 2020, 6(6): 695-706.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2019.08.019
  63. Zhang J, Ma Y, Hu J, et al. Review on chloride transport in alkali-activated materials: Role of precursors, activators and admixtures[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 328: 127081.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127081
  64. Osio-Norgaard J, Gevaudan J P, Srubar III W V. A review of chloride transport in alkali-activated cement paste, mortar, and concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 186: 191-206.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.119
  65. Akkaya A, Çağatay İ H. Investigation of the density, porosity, and permeability properties of pervious concrete with different methods[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 294: 123539.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123539
  66. Huang W, Wang H. Multi-aspect engineering properties and sustainability impacts of geopolymer pervious concrete[J]. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2022, 242: 110035.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.110035
  67. Tan Y, He Y, Cui X, et al. Design and performance optimization of alkali-activated waste coal bottom ash/slag porous concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 359: 129413.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129413
  68. Gowda S N B, Goudar S K, Thanu H P, et al. Performance evaluation of alkali activated slag based recycled aggregate pervious concrete[J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2023.
  69. Xu F, Li X, Xiong Q, et al. Influence of aggregate reinforcement treatment on the performance of geopolymer recycled aggregate permeable concrete: From experimental studies to PFC 3D simulations[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2022, 354: 129222.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129222
  70. Chen X, Yang Y, Zhang H, et al. Brick-concrete recycled aggregate/powder synergistic preparation of pervious concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2023, 407: 133517.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133517
  71. Tho-In T, Sata V, Chindaprasirt P, et al. Pervious high-calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2012, 30: 366-371.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.028
  72. Sata V, Wongsa A, Chindaprasirt P. Properties of pervious geopolymer concrete using recycled aggregates[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2013, 42: 33-39.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.046
  73. Li J, Zha W, Lv W, et al.Mechanical properties and sulfate resistance of basalt fiber-reinforced alkali-activated fly ash-slag-based coal gangue pervious concrete[J]. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2024, 21: e03961.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03961
  74. Sun Z, Lin X, Vollpracht A. Pervious concrete made of alkali activated slag and geopolymers[J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 189: 797-803.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.067